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p.155 Improvisation is a critical, yet neglected area of organizational learning... Improvisation, defined as intuition guiding action in a spontaneous way, is proposed as a way of enhancing the quality of action taken in the moment.
p.156 We assert that there is a skill to improvisation, and that the quality of improvisational action varies. Furthermore, improvisation is an important facet of management, and a critical part of organizational learning and strategic renewal.
p.157 Degree of spontaneity is only one dimension of improvisation. The second dimension is the degree to which intuition guides action. Many spontaneous responses are fairly routine in nature, with relatively little or no intuition applied.
p.157 we concur with Behling and Eckel who suggest that intuition is "choices made without obvious formal analysis" (1991, p. 47)... we support the view that intuition is an unconscious process based on distilled experience.
p.157-158 Simon's view of intuition as "analysis frozen into habit and into the capacity for rapid response through recognition" (1989, p. 38) [JLJ - I would add, or through simple recognition-inspired calculation]. Intuition as distilled experience recognizes that the quality of intuitive response depends upon the expertise or patterns of experience in a particular domain... We view distilled experience as the negative energy or potential, and the unconscious process as the means of tapping that energy... That improvisation is about "making do with available resources" is assumed by the spontaneous dimension of our definition, since it represents the context for action.
p.158 "scenario planning"... is a methodology that attempts to draw the future into the present. "Using scenarios is rehearsing the future. You run through the simulated events as if you were already living them. You train yourself to recognize which drama is unfolding. That helps you avoid unpleasant surprises, and know how to act" (Schwartz, 1991, p. 200). At the same time, the creation of scenarios blends elements of planning and visioning. Schwartz defines scenarios as "a set of organized ways for us to dream effectively about our own future" (1991, p. 4).
p.159 Intuition becomes improvisation when it is applied to action in a spontaneous way... The intersection between intuition and spontaneity melds together cognition and action. And the link between cognition and action (behavior) is an important facet of organizational learning.
p.159 Much of our attention in learning has been directed toward "anticipatory learning" where changes in cognition precede changes in behavior. Unfortunately, many cognitive changes never manifest themselves in behavioral change because other beliefs override or "block" the situation.
p.162 The concept of emergent strategy is well established in management theory (Mintzberg, 1988). Mintzberg suggests that only a portion of any strategic activity is executed according to plan. The planned or intended strategy has some unrealized components, which are discarded or neglected when they are no longer appropriate. The remaining portion of the intended strategy is the deliberate strategy, or the activity that takes place because of some prepared plan. New strategic components that emerge from actions taken are then incorporated into the organization's strategy, creating a realized whole. The emergent nature of strategy is what we refer to as improvisation. Mintzberg (1994) argues that all strategic activity involves some blend of intended and emergent strategy.
p.163 The central argument in these examples is that strategies are often not a successful series of decisions derived from premeditated actions. Rather, they evolve from the day-to-day actions of a variety of individuals in a spontaneous and often intuitive fashion. The common element is that strategy is a learning process which demands that strategic opportunities which arise over the course of implementation are not always predictable; and that competitive advantage and success often arise out of an organization's ability to see these opportunities, use them, and capitalize on them. They are examples of organizations creating and revising their strategies in response to the moment. They are observations of organizational improvisation. [JLJ - see also Robert Chia, Strategy Without Design]
p.163 The ability to act spontaneously is perhaps most commonly observed when the opportunity for analysis is removed because of extremely critical time pressures... Several studies... have indicated that improvised behavior is useful in times of crisis or disaster.
p.164 Weick (1993a) positions the skill of improvisation as a factor in maintaining conditions of order in environments that appear chaotic... Weick's assertion is that an individual used to routinely drawing order out of chaos is flexible enough to deal with these situations calmly. He calls this activity "bricolage" - making do with the materials that are available to create solutions that are required in the moment.
p.165 Weick (1993b) advances a metaphor of organizational design as improvisation... He presents the notion that... the design of an organization is in a constant state of change.
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